References

Introduction

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports, Deaths: Final Data for 2004. Vol. 55 (19), August 21, 2007.
2. Ibid.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2005. April 2008. Vol.56(10).
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports, Deaths: Final Data for 2004. Vol.55(19), August 21, 2007.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics: National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
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7. Estimates for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumonia/influenza and other lung diseases are from Chart Book, 2007, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 2007.

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

1. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): What Is ARDS? November 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Ards/Ards_WhatIs.html. Accessed on February 4, 2008.
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3. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): What Is ARDS? November 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Ards/Ards_WhatIs.html. Accessed on February 4, 2008.
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15. The ARDS Network. Ventilation with Lower Tidal Volumes as Compared with Traditional Tidal Volumes for Acute Lung Injury and the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. The New England Journal of Medicine. May 2000; 342(18):1301-8.
16. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): Living With ARDS. November 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Ards/Ards_LivingWith.html. Accessed on February 4, 2008.
17. Ware LB, et al. Pathogenic and Prognostic Significance of Altered Coagulation and Fibrinolysis in Acute Lung Injury/Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 35(8):1821-8.

Air Quality

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15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter. October 2004.
16. Ibid.
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25. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Quality Criteria for Lead. October 2006.
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59. Black Leadership Forum. Clear the Air. Georgia Coalition for the People’s Agenda, and the Southern Organizing Committee for Economic and Social Justice. Air of Injustice: African Americans and Power Plant Pollution. October 2002. U.S. EPA Green Book. Data compiled by MSB Energy Associates.
60. League of United Latin American Citizens. Air of Injustice: How Air Pollution Affects the Health of Hispanics and Latinos. July 2004. U.S. Census, 2002, and U.S. EPA Green Book, 2003. Data compiled by MSB Energy Associates.
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78. Gauderman WJ, et al. The Effect of Air Pollution on Lung Development from 10 to 18 Years of Age. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2004; 351:1057-67.
79. Ibid.

Asthma

I. Bronchiolitis is an inflammation of the bronchioles, which are thin-walled air passages in the lungs.

1. Arbes SJ, Gergen PJ, Vaughn B, Zeldin DC. Asthma Cases Attributable to Atopy: Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. November 2007; 120(5):1139-45.
2. Gilmour MI, Jaakkola MS, London SJ, Nel AE, Rogers CA. How Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke, Outdoor Air Pollutants and Increased Pollen Burdens Influences the Incidence of Asthma. Environmental Health Perspectives. April 2006; 114:627-33.
3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General. June 2006.
4. Jaakkola JK, Gissler M. Are Girls More Susceptible to the Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Tobacco Smoke on Asthma? Epidemiology. 2007; 18:573-6.
5. Committee of the Environmental and Occupational Health Assembly of the American Thoracic Society. State of the Art: Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1996; 153:3-50.
6. Brunekreef B, Holgate ST. Air Pollution and Health. Lancet. October 19, 2002; 360:1233-42.
7. Friedman MS, Powell KE, Hutwagner L, Graham LM, Teague WG. Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001; 285:897-905.
8. Abt Associates. Power Plant Emissions: Particulate Matter-Related Health Damages and the Benefits of Alternative Reduction Scenarios. Prepared for the Clean Air Task Force. 2004.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Worker Health Chartbook 2004, Chapter 2, Respiratory Diseases: Asthma. Available at http://www2a.cdc.gov/niosh-Chartbook/ch2/ch2-10.asp. Accessed on March 10, 2008.
10. Jaakkola JK, Pipari R, Jaakkola MS. Occupation and Asthma: A Population-based Incident Case-Control Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2003; 158:981-7.
11. Levan TD, et al. Vapor, Dust and Smoke Exposure in Relation to Adult-Onset Asthma and Chronic Reparatory Symptoms. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2006;163:1118-28.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 1982-2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Asthma Prevalence, Health Care Use and Mortality: United States, 2003-05. January 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/ashtma03-05/asthma03-05.htm. Accessed on October 5, 2007.
20. Ledogar RJ, Penchaszadeh A, Garden CCI, Acosta LG. Asthma and Latino Cultures: Different Prevalence Reported Among Groups Sharing the Same Environment. American Journal of Public Health. June 2000; 90(2):929-35.
21. Burchard EG, et al. Lower Bronchodilator Responsiveness in Puerto Rican than in Mexican Subjects with Asthma. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. November 14, 2003; 169:386-92.
22. Findley S, Lawler K, Bindra M, Maggio L, Penachio MM, Maylam C. Elevated Asthma in Indoor Environmental Exposures Among Puerto Rican Children of East Harlem. Journal of Asthma. 2003; 40(5):557-69.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 2004. Annual Summary with Detailed Diagnosis and Procedure Data. Vital and Health Statistics. October 2006; 13(162).
24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 2005. Unpublished data provided upon special request.
25. U.S. Census Bureau. Population Division. Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population by Five-Year Age Groups and Sex for the United States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006 (NC-EST2006-01). Release date: May 17, 2007.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Quickstats: Percentage Distribution of Hospitalizations for Types of Respiratory Diseases Among Children Aged <15 Years -- National Hospital Discharge Survey, United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 20, 2007; 56(28):713.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 2005.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Russo CA, Andrews RM, Coffey RM. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Potentially Preventable Hospitalizations, 2003. Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (H*CUP). July 2006.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey and National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 2005. Unpublished data provided upon special request.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2007 with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. 2007.
33. Miller JE. The Effects of Race/Ethnicity and Income on Early Childhood Asthma Prevalence and Health Care Use. American Journal of Public Health. 2000; 90:428-30.
34. Asmussen L, Weiss KB, Elfring D, Olson LM. Parent and Child Reports of Asthma Symptoms, Activity Limitations and Emotional Distress: Early Results from the Child Health Information Reporting Project (CHIRP). Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2004; 113:S182.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Births: Final Data for 2004. September 2006; 55(1).
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Asthma Prevalence, Health Care Use and Mortality: United States, 2003-05. January 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/ashtma03-05/asthma03-05.htm. Accessed on October 5, 2007.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases. 2007. Unpublished data provided by special request to the NHLBI.
43. Harvard Medical School. The Center for Health and the Global Environment. Inside the Greenhouse: The Impacts of CO2
    and Climate Change on Public Health in the Inner City. April 2004. Available at http://chge.med.harvard.edu/publications/documents/green.pdf. Accessed on September 27, 2007.
44. Birnbaum S. Barreiro T. Methacholine Challenge Testing. Chest. 2007; 131:1932-5.
45. National Institutes of Health. NAEPP Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Summary Report, 2007.
46. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Biologic for Allergy-Related Asthma. June 20, 2003. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2003/ANS01236.html. Accessed on September 6, 2007.
47. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. October 2007.
48. Ibid.
49. Sharif S, Kaplan MS. Use of Asthma Guidelines by Primary Care Providers to Reduce Hospitalizations and Emergency Department Visits in Poor, Minority, Urban Children. Journal of Pediatrics. August 2006; 118:S36-S37.
50. Klein JJ, van der Palen J, Uil SM, Zielhuis GA, Seydel ER, van Herwaarden CLA. Benefit from the Inclusion of Self-treatment Guidelines to a Self-management Programme for Adults with Asthma. European Respiratory Journal. 2001; 17(3):386-94.
51. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Asthma Self-management Education Among Youths and Adults, United States, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. September 7, 2007; 56(35):912-15. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5635a4.htm. Accessed on September 7, 2007.
52. Halm EA, Wisnivesky JP, Leventhal H. Quality and Access to Care Among a Cohort of Inner-City Adults with Asthma. Chest. 2005; 185(4):1943-50.
53. Gibson PG, et al. Self-management Education and Regular Practitioner Review for Adults with Asthma. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews. 1998, Issue 2, Art. No. CD001117. Last update, March 12, 2002.
54. Urek MC, Tudoric N, Plavec D, Urek R, Koprivc-Milenovic T, Maristela S. Effect of Education Programs on Asthma Control and Quality of Life in Adult Asthma Patients. Patient Education and Counseling. July 2005; 58:47-54.
55. Taylor DR. Editorial: Exhaled NO: Forward, Backward or Sideways? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176: 221-2.
56. Moore WC, Peters SP. Pulmonary and Critical Care Updates: Update in Asthma 2006. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007;175:649-54.
57. Singh AM, Moore PE, Gern JE, Lemanske Jr RF, Hartert TV. Bronchiolitis to Asthma: A Review and Call for Studies of Gene-Virus Interactions in Asthma Causation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 175:108-19.
58. Solway J, Irvin GI. Airway Smooth Muscle as a Target for Asthma Therapy. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 356;13:1367-9.
59. Cox G, et al. Asthma Control During the Year after Bronchial Thermoplasty. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 356:1327-37.
60. Berther DA, Sutherland ER. Overweight, Obesity and Incident Asthma. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 175:661-6.
61. Bai TR, Vonk JM, Postma DS, Boezen HM. Severe Exacerbations Predict Excess Lung Function Decline in Asthma. European Respiratory Journal. 2007; 30:452-6.
62. Bernstien JA, Alexis N, Barnes C, Bernstein IL, Nel A, Peden D, Diaz-Sanchez D, Tarlo SM, Williams PB. Health Effects of Air Pollution. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2004; 114:1116-23.
63. Akinbi L, Parker J, Woodruff T. Associations Between Outdoor Air Pollution and Childhood Asthma Symptoms in Metropolitan Areas, United States. Epidemiology. November 2006 Supplement; 17(6):S275.
64. American Lung Association Clinical Research Centers. Randomized Comparison of Strategies for Reducing Treatment in Mild Persistent Asthma. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 356:2027-39.
65. Grippi M, Mulrow C. Trials that Matter: Minimizing Treatment of Mild, Persistent Asthma. Annals of Internal Medicine. September 2007; 147(5):344-5.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

I. Any organic material made from plants or animals.

1. American Thoracic Society/ European Respiratory Society Statement: Standards for the Diagnosis and Management of Individuals with Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2003; 168:818-900.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Biomass Program. Information Resources: Biomass FAQs. February 22, 2008. Available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/biomass_basics_faqs.html. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air & Radiation: Six Common Pollutants; Particulate Matter, Basic Information. August 31, 2007. Available at http://www.epa.gov/air/particlepollution/basic.html. Accessed on October 22, 2007.
6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air & Radiation: Six Common Pollutants; Particulate Matter, Health and Environment. May 9, 2007. Available at http://www.epa.gov/air/particlepollution/health.html. Accessed on October 22, 2007.
7. World Health Organization. Fuel for Life: Household Energy, Indoor Air Pollution and Health. 2006. Available at http://www.who.int/indoorair/publications/fuelforlife/en/index.html. Accessed on October 22, 2007.
8. American Thoracic Society/ European Respiratory Society Statement: Standards for the Diagnosis and Management of Individuals with Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2003; 168:818-900.
9. Ibid.
10. Morris DG, Huang X, Kaminski N, et al. Loss of Integrin v 6-mediated TGF- Activation Causes Mmp12-dependent Emphysema. Nature. 2003; 422:169-73.
11. Hnizdo E, Sullivan PA, Bang KM, Wagner G. Association Between COPD and Employment by Industry and Occupation in the U.S. Population: A Study of Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2002; 156:738-46.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Surveillance—United States, 1971-2000. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. August 2, 2002; 51(SS06):1-16.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
15. Cohen SBZ, Pare PD, Maun SFP, Sin DD. The Growing Burden of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lung Cancer in Women: Examining Sex Differences in Cigarette Smoke Metabolism. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:113-20.
16. Mannino DM, Buist AS. Global Burden of COPD: Risk Factors, Prevalence and Future Trends. The Lancet. 2007; 370(9589):765-73.
17. Cohen SBZ, Pare PD, Maun SFP, Sin DD. The Growing Burden of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lung Cancer in Women: Examining Sex Differences in Cigarette Smoke Metabolism. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:113-20.
18. Caramori G, Adcock I. Gene-Environment Interactions in the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology. October 2006; 6(5): 323-8.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 1997-2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
20. Ibid.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
23. Ibid.
24. Mannino DM, Buist AS. Global Bburden of COPD: Risk Factors, Prevalence and Future Trends. The Lancet. 2007; 370(9589):765-73.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. Alpha-1Foundation. What is Alpha-1? Available at http://www.alphaone.org/alphas/?c=01-What-is-Alpha-1-Alphas. Accessed on September 13, 2007.
29. de Serres FJ. Worldwide Racial and Ethnic Distribution of a1-Antitrypsin Deficiency: Summary of an Analysis of Published Genetic Epidemiologic Surveys. Chest. 2002; 122:1818-29.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005. September 2007.
32. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Data Fact Sheet: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. March 2003. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/lung/other/copd_fact.pdf. Accessed on April 17, 2008.
33. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking. A Report of the U.S. Surgeon General. 2004.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. CDC WONDER On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No. 2J, 2007. Accessed on March 4, 2008.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey Raw Data, 2006. Analysis performed by American Lung Association Research and Program Services using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1979-2004, 2005 unpublished data provided upon special request.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Confronting COPD in America, 2000. Schulman, Ronca and Bucuvalas, Inc. (SRBI) Funded by Glaxo Smith Kline.
41. Kunik ME, Roundy K, Veazey C, Souchek J, Richardson P, Wray NP, Stanly MA. Surprisingly High Prevalence of Anxiety and Depression in Chronic Breathing Disorders. Chest. April 2005; 127(4):1205-11.
42. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortality: 2007 Chartbook on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases. June 2007.
43. Celli BR, MacNee W, et al. Standards for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Patients with COPD: A Summary of the ATS/ERS Position Paper. European Respiratory Journal. 2004; 23:932-46.
44. Calverley P, et al. Salmeterol and Fluticasone Propionate and Survival in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 356:775-89.
45. Garcia-Aymerich J, Lange P, Benet M, Schnohr P, Antó JM. Correspondence: Does Regular Physical Activity Reduce Lung Function Decline and COPD Risk among Smokers? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:314-15.
46. O’Reilly P, Bailey W. Long-term Continuous Oxygen Treatment in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Proper Use, Benefits and Unresolved Issues. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 2007; 13(2):120-4.
47. Lederer DJ, et al. Racial Differences in Waiting List Outcomes in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2008;177:450-454.
48. Lederer DJ, et al. Lung-Volume Reduction Surgery for Pulmonary Emphysema: Improvement in Body Mass Index, Airflow Obstruction, Dyspnea, and Exercise Capacity Index After 1 Year. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2007; 133:1434-8.
49. Naunheim K, et al. Long-term Follow-Up of Patients Receiving Lung-Volume-Reduction Surgery Versus Medical Therapy for Severe Emphysema by the National Emphysema Treatment Trial Research Group. 2006; 82(2):431-43.
50. National Institutes of Health. United States National Library of Medicine. Genetics Home Reference. January 2007. Available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene=serpina1. Accessed on February 27, 2008.
51. Ernst P, Gonzalez AV, Brassard P, Suissa S. Inhaled Corticosteroid Use in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and the Risk of Hospitalization for Pneumonia. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:162-6.
52. Parimon T, et al. Inhaled Corticosteroids and Risk of Lung Cancer Among Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2006: 712-9.
53. Ibid.
54. Calverley P, et al. Salmeterol and Fluticasone Propionate and Survival in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 356:775-89.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

1. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: Frequently Asked Questions. May 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/Faqs/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: What You Need to Know. June 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
5. Grosse SD, Boyle CA, Botkin JR, et al. Newborn Screening for Cystic Fibrosis. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2004; 53(RR13):1-36.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Office of Public Health Genomics. Cystic Fibrosis Clinical Validity. September 10, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/gtesting/ACCE/FBR/CF/CFCliVal_21.htm#21. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
7. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Patient Registry 2006 Annual Report. Available at http://www.cff.org/UploadedFiles/research/ClinicalResearch/PatientRegistryReport/2006%20Patient%20Registry%20Report.pdf. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
8. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: What You Need to Know. June 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. CDC WONDER On-line Database, complied from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No. 2J, 2007. Accessed on March 4, 2008.
10. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Patient Registry 2006 Annual Report. Available at http://www.cff.org/UploadedFiles/research/ClinicalResearch/PatientRegistryReport/2006%20Patient%20Registry%20Report.pdf. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
11. Sims EJ, et al. Economic Implications of Newborn Screening for Cystic Fibrosis: A Cost of Illness Retrospective Cohort Study. Lancet. 2007; 369(9568):1187-95.
12. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: Frequently Asked Questions. May 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/Faqs/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
13. Grosse SD, Boyle CA, Botkin JR, et al. Newborn Screening for Cystic Fibrosis. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2004; 53(RR13):1-36.
14. Sims EJ, McCormick J, Mehta G, Mehta A. Neonatal Screening for Cystic Fibrosis Is Beneficial Even in the Context of Modern Treatment. Journal Pediatrica. 2005; 147: S42-S46.
15. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: Frequently Asked Questions. May 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/Faqs/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
16. Maitra R, Hamilton JW. Altered Biogenesis of Delta F508-CFTR Following Treatment with Doxorubicin. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry. 2007; 20:465-72.
17. University Hospitals of Cleveland. Press Release: Cystic Fibrosis Gene Therapy Trial Results Encouraging. April 29, 2003. Available at http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-04/uhoc-cfg042803.php#. Accessed on January 18, 2008.
18. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Research Overview: Drug Development Pipeline. September 1, 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/research/DrugDevelopmentPipeline/#Gene_Therapy. Accessed on January 4, 2008.
19. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: Frequently Asked Questions. May 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/Faqs/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
20. Davis PB. Centennial Review: Cystic Fibrosis Since 1938. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. August 26, 2006; 173:475-82.
21. Liou TG, Adler FR, Cox DR, Chill BC. Lung Transplantation and Survival in Children with Cystic Fibrosis. New England Journal of Medicine. November 22, 2007; 357(21): 2143-52.
22. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Patient Registry 2006 Annual Report. Available at http://www.cff.org/UploadedFiles/research/ClinicalResearch/PatientRegistryReport/2006%20Patient%20Registry%20Report.pdf. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
23. Mayer-Hamblett N, Ramsey BW, Kronmal R. Advancing Outcome Measures for New Development in Cystic Fibrosis. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4(4):370-7.
24. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. About Cystic Fibrosis: Frequently Asked Questions. May 2007. Available at http://www.cff.org/AboutCF/Faqs/. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
25. Wicks E. Cystic Fibrosis. British Medical Journal. 2007; 334:1270-1.

HIV/AIDS-Related Lung Disease

1. Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS. 2006 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Annex 2: HIV and AIDS Estimates and Data, 2003 and 2005. Available at http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_GR_ANN2_en.pdf. Accessed on October 23, 2007.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Cases of HIV Infection and AIDS in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2005. 17 (revised June 2007).
3. Glynn M, Rhodes P. Estimated HIV Prevalence in the United States at the End of 2003 [Abstract T1-B1101]. Programs and Abstracts of the 2005 National HIV Prevention Conference; June 12-15, 2005; Atlanta, GA. Available at http://www.aegis.com/conferences/nhivpc/2005/t1-b1101.html. Accessed on December 20, 2007.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Cases of HIV Infection and AIDS in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2005. 17 (revised June 2007).
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Swain SD, Han S, Harmsen A, Shampeny K, Harmsen AG. Pulmonary Hypertension Can Be a Sequela of Prior Pneumocystis Pneumonia. American Journal of Pathology. 2007; 171:790-9.
10. McLean JC. Pneumocystis (carinii) jiroveci Pneumonia. eMedicine May 8, 2007. Available at http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic1850.htm. Accessed on December 19, 2007.
11. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2006.
12. Girardi E, Raviglione MC, Antonucci G, et al. Impact of the HIV Epidemic on the Spread of Other Diseases: The Case of Tuberculosis. AIDS. 2000; 14(suppl 3):47-56.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis Incidence—United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 23, 2007; 56(11):245-50.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of Tuberculosis, American Thoracic Society, CDC, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 20, 2003; 52(No. RR-11): 50-51.
15. An Official ATS/IDSA Statement: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Nontuberculosis Mycobacterial Diseases. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care and Medicine. 2007; 175:367-416.
16. Ibid.
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. You Can Prevent MAC (Disseminated Mycobacterium Avium Complex Disease). Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/brochures/print/mac.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2007.
18. Han XY, Tarrand JJ, Infante R, Jacobson KL, Truong M. Clinical Significance and Epidemiologic Analyses of Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare among Patients Without Aids. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. September 2005; 43:4407-4412.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. You Can Prevent MAC (Disseminated Mycobacterium Avium Complex Disease). Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/brochures/print/mac.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2007.
20. Ibid.
21. Sudano I, Spieker LE, Noll G, Corti R, Weber R, Luscher F. Cardiovascular Disease in HIV Infection. American Heart Journal. June 2006; 151:1147-55.
22. Ieong MH, Farber HW. Noninfectious Pulmonary Complications of HIV. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine. May 2006; 13(3):194-202.
23. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. August 2006. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/pah/pah_what.html. Accessed on December 21, 2007.
24. Greenwald JL, Burstein GR, Pincus J, Branson B. A Rapid Review of Rapid HIV Antibody Tests. Current Infectious Disease Reports. 2006; 8:125-31.
25. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. HIV Infection and AIDS: An Overview. October 2007. Available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/hivinf.htm. Accessed on January 9, 2008.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treating Opportunistic Infections Among HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents: Recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. December 17, 2004; 53(RR15):1-112.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH News. Statement of Anthony S Fauci, MD, Director National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases on the Release of New Data from the HVTN 502 (STEP) HIV Vaccine Study. November 7, 2007. Available at http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/nov2007/niaid-07.htm. Accessed on November 8, 2007.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rapid HIV Testing in Emergency Departments – Three U.S. Sites, January 2005-March 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 22, 2007; 56(24):569-601.

Influenza and Pneumonia

I. Mycoplasma is an infectious organism which has characteristics of both bacteria and viruses.

II. The 2007-2008 TIV and LAIV strains are A/Solomon Islands/3/2006 (H1N1)-like, A/Wisconsin/67/2005 (H3N2)-like and B/Malaysia/2506/2004-like antigens.

III. A foreign substance that triggers the formation of antibodies that react to make the substance harmless.

IV. A pandemic occurs when a novel strain of influenza virus emerges and has the ability to infect and easily pass between humans. Because humans have little immunity to the new virus, a worldwide epidemic, or pandemic, can ensue.

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Avian Influenza. Influenza Viruses. 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/flu-viruses.htm. Accessed on October 9, 2007.
2. National Foundation for Infectious Diseases. Facts About Pneumococcal Disease. October 2002. Available at http://www.nfid.org/factsheets/pneumofacts.html. Accessed on March 5, 2008.
3. Ibid.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diseases and Conditions: Key Facts About Seasonal Influenza (Flu). September 17, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/keyfacts.htm. Accessed on October 2, 2007.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005. September 2007.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005. September 2007.
8. Ibid.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 13, 2007; 56(RR06):1-54.
10. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, et al. Mortality Associated with Influenza and Respiratory Syncytial Virus in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association. January 8, 2003; 289(2):179-186.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1988‑-2004 and unpublished data, 2005.
12. Ibid.
13. Deresinski S. In the Literature: Efficacy of the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007; 45:vi. From Grijalva CG, Nuorti JP, Arbogast PG, et al. Decline in Pneumonia Admissions After Childhood Immunizations with Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in the USA; A Time-Series Analysis. Lancet. 2007; 369:1179-86.
14. Poehling KA, et al. The Underrecognized Burden of Influenza in Young Children. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006; 355:31-40.
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Quickstats: Percentage Distribution of Hospitalizations for Types of Respiratory Diseases Among Children Aged <15 Years—National Hospital Discharge Survey, United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 20, 2007; 56(28):713.
16. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Division of Epidemiology. Unpublished data, 2005.
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 13, 2007; 56(RR06):1-54.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office of Enterprise Communication. Press Release: CDC’s Advisory Committee Recommends Influenza Vaccination for Children 6 months through 18 years of age. February 27, 2008. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/pressrel/2008/r080227.htm. Accessed on April 18, 2008.
21. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Soreth J. Product Approval Information—Licensing Action: Flumist. September 19, 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/cber/approvltr/flumist091907L.htm. Accessed on September 24, 2007.
22. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Press release: “First Nasal Mist Flu Vaccine Approved.” June 17, 2003. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2003/NEW00913.html. Accessed on October 1, 2007.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Notice to Readers: Expansion of Use of Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (FluMist®) to Children Aged 2–4 Years and Other FluMist Changes for the 2007–2008 Influenza Season. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. November 23, 2007; 56(46): 1217-1219.
24. Soreth J. FDA Product Approval Information—Licensing Action: Flumist. September 19, 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/cber/approvltr/flumist091907L.htm. Accessed on September 24, 2007.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 13, 2007; 56(RR06):1-54.
26. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Press release: “First Nasal Mist Flu Vaccine Approved.” June 17, 2003. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2003/NEW00913.html. Accessed on October 1, 2007.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, Prevalence Report 1997-2006. Available at http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat=IM&yr=2006&qkey=4408&state=All. Accessed on June 13, 2007.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Vaccination Coverage Among Children Aged 6-59 Months—Six Immunization Information System Sentinel Sites, United States, 2006-07 Influenza Season. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. September 21, 2007; 56(37).
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
30. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Consumer Assessment of Health Providers and Systems, 2000-2004.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine. What You Need To Know. July 1997. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/downloads/vis-ppv.pdf. Accessed on September 13, 2007.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Improving Influenza, Pneumococcal Polysaccharide and Hepatitis B Vaccination Coverage Among Adults Aged <65 Years at High Risk: A Report on Recommendations of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. April 1, 2005; 54(RR05):1-11.
33. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. 1994-2004 Influenza/Pneumococcal Campaign.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, Prevalence Report 1997-2006. Available at http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat=IM&yr=2006&qkey=4408&state=All. Accessed on December 5, 2007.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Raw data from the 2006 National Health Interview Survey. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 13, 2007; 56(RR06):1-54.
37. Guan Y, Chen H. Resistance to Anti-Influenza Agents. Lancet. October 1, 2005; 366(9492):1139-40.
38. Deyde VM, et al. Surveillance of Resistance to Adamantanes Among Influenza A(H3N2) and A(H1N1) Viruses Isolated Worldwide. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2007; 196:249-57.
39. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Relenza. April 2006. Available at http://www.fda.gov/cder/consumerinfo/druginfo/relenza.HTM. Accessed on December 17, 2007.
40. Deresinski S. In the Literature: Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) and the 4-Hour Rule. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007; 45:v-vi. From Kanwar M, Brar N, Khatib R, Fakih MG. Misdiagnosis of Community-Acquired Pneumonia and Inappropriate Utilization of Antibiotics: Side Effects of the 4-H Antibiotic Administration Rule. Chest. 2007; 131:1865-9.
41. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus. May 7, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm. Accessed on October 9, 2007.
42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Avian Influenza (Bird Flu), What You Should Know, Current Situation. June 15, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/outbreaks/current.htm. Accessed on October 1, 2007.
43. Ibid.
44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Avian Influenza: The Virus and Its Spread, Influenza Viruses. November 18, 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/flu-viruses.htm. Accessed on September 7, 2007.
45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus. May 7, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm. Accessed on September 4, 2007.
46. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First U.S. Vaccine for Humans Against the Avian Influenza Virus H5N1. April 17, 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01611.html. Accessed on September 5, 2007.
47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus. May 7, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm. Accessed on September 4, 2007.
48. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First U.S. Vaccine for Humans Against the Avian Influenza Virus H5N1. April 17, 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01611.html. Accessed on September 5, 2007.
49. Nichol KL, Nordin JD, Nelson DB, Mullooly JP, Hak E. Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine in the Community-Dwelling Elderly. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 357(14):1473-81.
50. Treanor JD. Editorials: Influenza—The Goal of Control. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 357(14):1439-41.
51. The American Lung Association Asthma Clinical Research Centers. The Safety of Inactivated Influenza Vaccine in Adults and Children with Asthma. New England Journal of Medicine. 2001; 345:1529-36.

Lesser-Known Lung Diseases

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No.2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Bronchiestasis. January 2006. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/brn/brn_causes.html. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
3. Mayo Clinic. Health, Baby’s Health: Bronchiolitis. October 6, 2006. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bronchiolitis/DS00481/DSECTION=1. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No.2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
5. Sunenshine RH, et al. Public Health Surveillance for Coccidioidomycosis in Arizona. Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 2007. Accessed on September 17, 2007.
6. De la Torre J, Richard AJ. eMedicine: Coccidioidomycosis. September 28, 2006. Available at http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic103.htm. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
7. Ibid.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Infectious Diseases, Special Pathogens Branch. Case Information: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome; Case Count and Descriptive Statistics. March 26, 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hanta/hps/noframes/caseinfo.htm. Accessed on January 22, 2008.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases. Disease Listing: Histoplasmosis. October 12, 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/histoplasmosis_g.htm. Accessed on January 22, 2008.
13. Olson AL, Swigris JJ, Lezotte DC, Norris JM, Wilson CG, Brown KK. Mortality from Pulmonary Fibrosis Increased in the United States from 1992 to 2003. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:277-84.
14. Hunninghake GW, Schwarz MI. Does Current Knowledge Explain the Pathogenesis of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: A Perspective. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:449-52.
15. Taskar VS, Coultas DB. Is Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis an Environmental Disease? Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2006; 3(4):293-8.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases. Disease Listing: Pertussis. October 13, 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/pertussis_t.htm. Accessed on February 6, 2008.
17. National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners. Pertussis: Disease Overview. January 2006. Available at http://www.pertussis.com/diseaseoverview.html. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance of Vaccine Preventable Diseases Satellite Broadcast and Webcast, December 13, 2007.
19. National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners. Pertussis: Disease Overview. January 2006. Available at http://www.pertussis.com/diseaseoverview.html. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. Vaccine Information Statement – Interim, Tdap Vaccine; What You Need To Know. July 12, 2006.
23. Centers for Disease Control. Surveillance of Vaccine Preventable Diseases Satellite Broadcast and Webcast. December 13, 2007.
24. Mayo Clinic. Health, Infectious Diseases: SARS. October 6, 2006. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sars/DS00501/DSECTION=1. Accessed on September 21, 2007.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/factsheet.htm. Accessed on September 21, 2007.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Allergy and Infection Diseases. NIAID Research on Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Fact Sheet. September, 2005. Available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/sars.htm. Accessed on September 21, 2007.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/factsheet.htm. Accessed on September 21, 2007.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Current Situation. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/situation.htm. Accessed on September 21, 2007.
29. Mayo Clinic. SARS. 2006. Available at http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/DS/00501.html. Accessed on September 21, 2007.

Lung Cancer

I. Average number of events per cumulative amount of time observed. Person-years is used for counting time when individuals are observed over different periods of time. For example, the number of person years for two people being observed for five years each is the same as that of ten people observed for one year or ten person-years.
II. Agriculture- insecticide application, mining and quarrying- zinc-lead and metal, food industry- butchers and meat workers, leather industry- tanners and processors, wood and wood products- carpenters and joiners, printing- rotogravure workers, printing pressmen, machine room workers, binders and other, chemical production, rubber industry, ceramic- ceramic, pottery and glass workers, metals, motor vehicle manufacture and repair- mechanics, welders, etc, transport- railroad workers, bus and truck drivers, operators of excavator machines or heavy equipment and filling station attendants and other- laundry and dry cleaners.

1. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2007.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking. A Report of the U.S. Surgeon General. 2004.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General. 2006.
6. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute. Fact Sheet. Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers. July 13, 2004. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/radon. Accessed on February 15, 2008.
7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Radon: A Citizen’s Guide to Radon. April 2007. Available at http://www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/citguide.html. Accessed on September 14, 2007.
8. Field R, et al. Heartland Radon Research and Education Program (HRREP): The Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2000; 151:1081-101.
9. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Toxicology Program. 11th Report on Carcinogens (RoC). January 31, 2005. Available at http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/19914. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Cigarette Smoking, Asbestos Exposure and Your Health. June 2006. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/asbestos/site-kit/docs/CigarettesAsbestos2.pdf. Accessed on January 28, 2008.
11. Jerrett M, Burnett RT, Ma R, Pope CA, Krewski D, Newbold KB, Thurston G, Shi Y, Finkelstein N, Calle EE, Thun MJ. Spatial Analysis of Air Pollution and Mortality in Los Angeles. Epidemiology. November 2005; 16(6):727-36.
12. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-2004.
13. Ibid.
14. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2007.
15. U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group. United States Cancer Statistics: 2004 Incidence and Mortality. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Cancer Institute; 2007.
16. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-2004.
17. American Cancer Society. Data provided upon special request. February 2008.
18. Windeler J, Lange S. Education and Debate: Events per Person Year—A Dubious Concept. British Medical Journal February 18, 1995; 310: 454-456.
19. Gordis L. Epidemiology, Second Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 2000.
20. Wakelee H, et al. Lung Cancer in Never Smokers. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2007; 25(5):472-8.
21. Thun M, et al. Lung Cancer Death Rates in Lifelong Nonsmokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2006; 98(10):691-9.
22. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-2004.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 1974-2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
24. Ibid.
25. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2007.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Report. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 2007; 55 (19).
27. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-2004.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Report. Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 2007; 55 (19).
29. Ibid.
30. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2007.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years or Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses --- United States, 1997—2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 1, 2005; 54(25):625-628. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5425a1.htm. Accessed on March 14, 2008.
32. California Environmental Protection Agency. Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Executive Summary, June 2005.
33. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-2004.
34. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on September 12, 2007.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing and Controlling Cancer: The National Second Leading Cause of Death. May 24, 2007. Available at http://cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/dcpc.htm. Accessed on February 15, 2008.
36. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute. A Snapshot of Lung Cancer. December 2007. Available at http://planning.cancer.gov/disease/Lung-Snapshot.pdf. Accessed on February 1, 2008.
37. American Cancer Society. Cancer Reference Information. Detailed Guide: Lung Cancer—Non-Small Cell; Can Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Be Found Early? October 2006. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_3x_Can_Non-Small_Cell_Lung_Cancer_Be_Found_Early.asp?sitearea=. Accessed on October 15, 2007.
38. American Cancer Society. Cancer Reference Information. Overview: Lung Cancer- Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer; How Is Non-Small Lung Cancer Treated? August 2006. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_4x_How_Is_Non-small_Cell_Lung_Cancer_Treated.asp?sitearea=. Accessed on October 4, 2007.
39. Vastag B. Lung Screening Study to Test Popular CT Scans. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002; 288.
40. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute. Clinical Trials : National Lung Screening Trial; What is NLST? Available at http://www.cancer.gov/nlst. Accessed on October 15, 2007.
41. U.S. National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute. National Lung Screening Trial Questions and Answers. Available at http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/sep2002/nci-19b.htm. Accessed on February 14, 2008.
42. Turner MC, Chen Y, Krewski D, Calle EE, Thun MJ. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Is Associated with Lung Cancer Mortality in a Prospective Study of Never Smokers. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176: 285-90.
43. Parimon,T, et al. Inhaled Corticosteroids and Risk of Lung Cancer among Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 175:712-9.
44. Zeka A, et al. Lung Cancer and Occupation in Non-Smokers, A Multicenter Case-Control Study in Europe. Epidemiology. 2006; 17:7.
45. Omenm GS. Chemoprevention of Lung Cancers: Lessons from CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial, and Prospects for the Future. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. June 2007; 16(3):184-91.
46. Shepherd F. Erlotinib in Previously Treated Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine. July 14, 2005; 353:123-32. Available at http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/2/123. Accessed on September 25, 2007.
47. Schabath MB, Hernandez L, Xifeng W, Pillow P, Spitz M. Dietary Phytoestrogens and Lung Cancer Risk. Journal of the American Medical Association. September 28, 2005; 294:1493-1504.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (Sleep-Disordered Breathing)

1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. National Center on Sleep Disorders Research. National Sleep Disorders Research Plan, Chapter 5 – Sleep Disorders: Sleep-Disordered Breathing. 2003. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/res_plan/section5/section5a.html. Accessed on January 30, 2008.
2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index: Sleep Apnea. February 2006. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_WhatIs.html. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
3. Cataletto, M. State University at Stony Brook. Breathing-Related Sleep Disorder, 2006. Available at: http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3130.htm.
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index: Sleep Apnea. February 2006. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_WhatIs.html. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Sleep Apnea. What is Sleep Apnea? February 2006. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_WhoIsAtRisk.html. Accessed September 26, 2007.
6. Ibid.
7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Sleep Apnea. February 2006. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_WhatIs.html. Accessed September 26, 2007.
8. Spilsbury J, et al. Neighborhood Disadvantage as a Risk for Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Journal of Pediatrics. 2006. 149(3):342-7.
9. Palmer LJ, Buxbaum SG, Larkin EK, Patel SR, Elston RC, Tishler PV, Redline S. Whole Genome Scan of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity in African-American Families. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2004; 169:1314-21.
10. Redline S, et al. Risk Factors for Sleep-Disordered Breathing in Children. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. May 1999; 159: 1527-32.
11. Lorenzi-Filho, G., Drager, L.F. Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Atherosclerosis: A New Paradigm. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 18:1219-21.
12. Ibid.
13. Sassani A, Findley LJ, Kruger M, Goldlust E, George C, Davidson TM. Reducing Motor-Vehicle Collisions, Costs and Fatalities by Treating Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome. Sleep. 2004; 27 (3):453-8.
14. Ibid.
15. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute: Sleep Apnea. February 2006. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_Treatments.html. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
16. Sassani A, Findley LJ, Kruger M, Goldlust E, George C, Davidson TM. Reducing Motor-Vehicle Collisions, Costs and Fatalities by Treating Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome. Sleep. 2004; 27 (3):453-8.
17. McGinley BM, Patil SP, Kirkness JP, Smith PL, Schwartz AR, Schneider H. A Nasal Cannula Can Be Used To Treat Obstructive Sleep Apnea. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:194-200.
18. Redline S, Storfer-Isser A, Rosen CL, Johnson NL, Kirchner HL, Emancipator J, Kibler AM. Association Between Metabolic Syndrome and Sleep-Disordered Breathing in Adolescents. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:401-8.
19. Hirshkowitz M, Black J. Effect of Adjunctive Modafinil on Wakefulness and Quality of Life in Patients with Excessive Sleepiness-Associated Obstructive Sleep Apnoea/Hypopnoea Syndrome: A 12-Month, Open-Label Extension Study. CNS Drugs. 2007; 21(5):407-16.

Occupational Lung Diseases

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Occupational Cancer. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/cancer/. Accessed on January 23, 2008.
2. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2002. Environmental Risks Section. Available at http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
3. Ibid.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Worker Health Chartbook. 2004. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/chartbook/. Accessed on March 14, 2007.
5. Jaakkola JJ, Pipari R, Jaakkola MS. Occupation and Asthma: A Population-based Incident Case-control Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2003; 158:981-7.
6. Environmental Working Group. Asbestos. Facts: America’s Asbestos Epidemic. Available at www.ewg.org/reports/asbestos/printerfriendly.php. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Toxicology Program. 11th Report on Carcinogens (RoC). January 31, 2005. Available at http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/19914. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
8. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Safety and Health Topics: Asbestos. November 2, 2007. Available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/asbestos/index.html. Accessed on February 11, 2008.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No. 2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
10. Environmental Working Group. Asbestos. Facts: America’s Asbestos Epidemic. Available at www.ewg.org/reports/asbestos/printerfriendly.php. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
11. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Toxicology Program. 11th Report on Carcinogens (RoC). January 31, 2005. Available at http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/19914. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
12. National Cancer Institute. Fact Sheet. Asbestos Exposure: Questions and Answers. February 1, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/asbestos. Accessed on February 11, 2008.
13. Environmental Working Group. Asbestos. Facts: America’s Asbestos Epidemic. Available at www.ewg.org/reports/asbestos/printerfriendly.php. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
14. American Cancer Society. Detailed Guide: Malignant Mesothelioma. What Are the Key Statistics about Malignant Mesothelioma? October 19, 2006. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_1X_What_are_the_key_statistics_for_malignant_mesothelioma_29.asp?rnav=cri. Accessed on February 11, 2008.
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pneumoconiosis Prevalence Among Working Coal Miners Examined in Federal Chest Radiograph Surveillance Programs—United States, 1996-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2003; 52(15):336-40.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No. 2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
17. Blaivas AJ. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Silicosis. August 10, 2007. Available at http://0-medlineplus.nlm.nih.gov.catalog.llu.edu/medlineplus/ency/article/000134.htm. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
18. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupation Safety and Health Administration. Crystalline Silica Exposure: Health Hazard Information for General Industry Employees. September 13, 2007. Available at http://www.osha.gov/Publications/3176-2002-English.html. Accessed on November 19, 2007.
19. Blaivas AJ. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Silicosis. August 10, 2007. Available at http://0-medlineplus.nlm.nih.gov.catalog.llu.edu/medlineplus/ency/article/000134.htm. Accessed on January 16, 2008.
20. American Thoracic Society. Official Statement: Adverse Effects of Crystalline Silica Exposure. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1997; 155:761-5.
21. Kaufman, DA. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. March 16, 2007. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000109.htm. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No.2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
23. Environmental Health, Safety and Quality Management Services for Business and Industry, and Federal, State and Local Government. IAQ Fact Sheet. March 9, 2006.
24. Törnquist H, et al. Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans After Diesel Exhaust Inhalation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007; 176:395-400.
25. U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2006. October 16, 2007. Available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/osh.pdf. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
26. Alarcon WA, et al. Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2005; 294:455-65.
27. U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, 2006. Available at http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf. Accessed on January 25, 2008.
28. Ibid.
29. Gilliland F, et al. Uranium Mining and Lung Cancer Among Navajo Men in New Mexico and Arizona, 1969-1993. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2000; 42(3):278-83.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Work-Related Lung Disease (WoRLD) Surveillance System. May 2003. Available at http://www2a.cdc.gov/drds/WorldReportData/SectionDetails.asp?SectionTitleID=15. Accessed on January 23, 2008.
31. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Progress Review: Healthy People 2010 Focus Area 20—Occupational Safety and Health. Available at http://www.healthypeople.gov/Data/2010prog/focus20/default.htm. Accessed on February 12, 2008.
32. Environmental Health, Safety and Quality Management Services for Business and Industry, and Federal, State and Local Government, IAQ Fact Sheet. March 9, 2006.

Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH)

1. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Hypertension. May 2007.
2. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Overview of Pulmonary Hypertension. September 2007.
3. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension? August 2006. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/pah/pah_signs.html. Accessed on December 10, 2007.
4. Ibid.
5. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Overview of Pulmonary Hypertension. September 2007.
6. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Announces Withdrawal Fenfluramine and Dexfenfluramine (Fen-Phen). September 15, 1997. Available at http://www.fda.gov/cder/news/phen/fenphenpr81597.htm. Accessed on February 6, 2008.
7. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Overview of Pulmonary Hypertension. September 2007.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Gwinn, M. Primary Pulmonary Hypertension, Herpesvirus-8 Infection and BMPR2. E-journal. November 18, 2003. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/ejournal/BMPR2.htm. Accessed on April 10, 2008.
9. Ibid.
10. Newman JH, Fanburg BL, Archer SL, Badesch DB, Barst RJ, Garcia JGN, et al. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension—Future Directions—Report of a National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute/Office of Rare Diseases Workshop. Circulation. 2004; 109:2947–52.
11. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Rare Diseases Report. 2001. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/raredisrpt01.htm#PPHN. Accessed on October 9, 2007.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No.2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
13. Newman JH, Fanburg BL, Archer SL, Badesch DB, Barst RJ, Garcia JGN, et al. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension—Future Directions—Report of a National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute/Office of Rare Diseases Workshop. Circulation. 2004; 109:2947–52.
14. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Overview of Pulmonary Hypertension. September 2007.
15. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. How Is Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Diagnosed? August 2006. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/pah/pah_diagnosis.html. Accessed on December 10, 2007.
16. Rubin LJ, Hopkins W. UpToDate: Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Hypertension. May 2007.
17. Ibid.
18. Adams JM, Stark AR. UpToDate: Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn. March 2007.
19. Baquero H, Soliz A, Neira F, Venegas ME, Sola A. Oral Sildenafil in Infants with Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn: A Pilot Randomized Blinded Study. Pediatrics. April 2006; 117(4):1077-83.
20. Thenappan T, et al. A USA-Based Registry for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: 1982-2006. European Respiratory Journal. 2007; 30:1103-10.
21. Jardim C, et al. Pulmonary Artery Distensibility in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: An MRI Pilot Study. European Respiratory Journal. 2007; 29:476-81.

Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (RDS & BPD)

I. Increased acidity.
II. Inositol, sulfur-containing amino acids and selenium.

1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. May 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Bpd/Bpd_WhatIs.html. Accessed on January 14, 2008.
2. Ibid.
3. Hallman M, Marttila R, Pertile R, Ojaniemi M, Haataja R. Genes and Environment in Common Neonatal Lung Disease. Neonatology. 2007; 91:298-302.
4. Greene, A. Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome. September 5, 2007. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001563.htm. Accessed on January 9, 2008.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. VitalStats. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/VitalStats.htm. Accessed on January 7, 2008.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Births: Final Data for 2004. September 2006; 55(1).
7. Greene A. Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome. September 5, 2007. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001563.htm. Accessed on January 9, 2008.
8. Baraldi E, Filippone M. Chronic Lung Disease after Premature Birth. New England Journal of Medicine. 2007; 357:1946-55.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Births: Final Data for 2004. September 2006; 55(1).
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005. September 2007.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports; Deaths: Final Data for 2004. August 21, 2007; 55(19).
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Leading Causes for 2003. March 15, 2007; 55(10).
13. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortality: 2007 Chartbook on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases.
14. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. May 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Bpd/Bpd_WhoIsAtRisk.html. Accessed on January 14, 2008.
15. Aly H. Is There a Strategy for Preventing Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia? Absence of Evidence Is Not Evidence of Absence. Pediatrics. 2007; 119:818-20.
16. Jobe AH, Bancalari E. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: NICH/NHLBI/ORD Workshop Summary. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2001; 163:1723-9.
17. Unpublished data. Provided by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 2007.
18. Health Newsflash. Health Conditions. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia Fact Book. Available at http://www.healthnewsflash.com/conditions/bronchopulmonary_dysplasia.php. Accessed on January 18, 2008.
19. Greene A. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome. September 5, 2007. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001563.htm. Accessed on January 9, 2008.
20. Hallman M. Lung Surfactant, Respiratory Failure and Genes. New England Journal of Medicine. March 25, 2004; 1278-80.
21. Schreiber M, Gin-Mestan K, Marks J, Huo D, Lee G, Srisuparp P. Inhaled Nitric Oxide in Premature Infants with the Respiratory Distress Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine. November 27, 2003; 349(22):2099-2107.
22. Jobe AH, Bancalari E. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: NICH/NHLBI/ORD Workshop Summary. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2001; 163:1723-9.
23. Stevens TP, Harrington EW, Blennow M, Soll RF. Early Surfactant Administration with Brief Ventilation vs. Selective Surfactant and Continued Mechanical Ventilation for Preterm Infants with or at Risk for Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2007; 17(4):CD003063.
24. The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Health and Medical Information. Air Leak Syndrome. Available at http://www.chop.edu/consumer/your_child/wellness_index.jsp?id=-8730. Accessed on January 7, 2008.
25. Biniwale MA, Ehrenkranz RA. The Role of Nutrition in the Prevention and Management of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. Seminars in Perinatology. August 2006; 30(4):200-8.
26. Driscol W, Davis J. eMedicine: Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. April 23, 2007. Available at http://www.emedicine.com/ped/fulltopic/topic289.htm#section~Introduction. Accessed on September 20, 2007.
27. Biniwale MA, Ehrenkranz RA. The Role of Nutrition in the Prevention and Management of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. Seminars in Perinatology. August 2006; 30(4):200-8.
28. Van Marter LJ. Progress in Discovery and Evaluation of Treatment to Prevent Bronchoplumonary Dysplasia. Biology of the Neonate. June 2006; 89(4):303-12.
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Births: Final Data for 2004. September 2006; 55(1).

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)

I. All participants were 12 months or younger at the time of their RSV diagnosis. Younger age, in months, was related to greater disease severity.

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Brief Report: Respiratory Syncytial Virus Activity – United States, July 2006—November 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. December 7, 2007; 56(48): 1263-5. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5648a3.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2007.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Infectious Diseases, Respiratory and Enteric Viruses Branch. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Information. January 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/respiratory/rsvfeat.htm. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Brief Report: Respiratory Syncytial Virus Activity – United States, July 2006—November 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. December 7, 2007; 56(48):1263-5. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5648a3.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2007.
7. Ibid.
8. DeNicola LC, et al. eMedicine Specialties, Pediatrics. Infectious Diseases: Bronchiolitis. December 11, 2006. Available at http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic287.htm. Accessed on November 16, 2007.
9. Holman RC, Curns AT, et al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Hospitalizations Among American Indian and Alaska Native Infants and the General United States Infant Population. Pediatrics. October 2004; 114 (4): e437-e444.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Infectious Diseases, Respiratory and Enteric Viruses Branch. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Information. January 2005. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/respiratory/rsvfeat.htm. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Brief Report: Respiratory Syncytial Virus Activity – United States, July 2006—November 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. December 7, 2007; 56(48):1263-5. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5648a3.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2007.
12. DeNicola LC, et al. eMedicine Specialties, Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases: Bronchiolitis. December 11, 2006. Available at http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic287.htm. Accessed on November 16, 2007.
13. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, et al. Mortality Associated with Influenza and Respiratory Syncytial Virus in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2003; 289:179-86.
14. Ibid.
15. Fasey A, et al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Elderly and High Risk Patients. New England Journal of Medicine. 2005; 352:1740-58.
16. Ibid.
17. Holman RC, Curns AT, et al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Hospitalizations Among American Indian and Alaska Native Infants and the General United States Infant Population. Pediatrics. October 2004; 114 (4):e437-e444.
18. Bockova J, et al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Navajo and White Apache Children. Pediatrics. August 2002; 110(2):e20. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/110/2/e20. Accessed on November 19. 2007.
19. Bradley J, et al. Severity of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis Is Affected by Cigarette Smoke Exposure. Pediatrics. 2005; 115:7-14.

Sarcoidosis

I. Occurs when the person’s immune system is able to successfully fight the tuberculosis infection; also called inactive infection.

II. Disorders in which lymphocyte cells are produced in excessive quantities, usually in patients with compromised immune systems.

1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Diseases and Conditions Index: Sarcoidosis. June 2007. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/sarc/sar_whatis.html. Accessed on February 19, 2008.
2. Milton RD, Kreider ME. Lesson Learned from ACCESS (A Case-Controlled Etiologic Study of Sarcoidosis). Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4: 453-6.
3. Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation. What is Pulmonary Fibrosis? May 25, 2007. Available at http://www.pulmonaryfibrosis.org/ipf.htm. Accessed on February 19, 2008.
4. American Thoracic Society. What is Sarcoidosis? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2006:173(P3-P4).
5. Kreider M, et al. Relationship of Environmental Exposures to the Clinical Phenotype of Sarcoidosis. Chest. 2005:128:207-15.
6. Moller, DR. Potential Etiologic Agents in Sarcoidosis. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:465-8.
7. American Thoracic Society Statement on Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1999; 160(2).
8. Alberts WM. Lung Disease and the Lightest of Metals. Chest. 2004; 126:1730-2.
9. Fireman E, Haimsky E, Noiderfer M, Priel I, Lerman Y. Misdiagnosis of Sarcoidosis in Patients with Chronic Beryllium Disease. Sarcoidosis, Vasculitis and Diffuse Lung Diseases. June 2003; 20: 144-8.
10. Rybicki B, Iannuzzi MC, Frederick MM, et al. Familial Aggregation of Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2001; 164.
11. American Thoracic Society Statement on Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1999; 160(2).
12. American Thoracic Society. What is Sarcoidosis? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2006; 173(P3-P4).
13. Baughman RP, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Patients in a Case-Control Study of Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. November 2001; 164:1885-9.
14. American Thoracic Society. What is Sarcoidosis? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2006; 173(P3-P4).
15. Iannuzzi MC, Rybicki BA. Genetics of Sarcoidosis: Candidate Genes and Genome Scans. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:108-16.
16. American Thoracic Society. What is Sarcoidosis? American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2006; 173(P3-P4).
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics CDC Wonder On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 1999-2004 Series 20 No.2J, 2007. Accessed on April 1, 2008.
18. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortality: 2007 Chartbook on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases. Chart 4-2.
19. Baughman RP, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Patients in a Case-Control Study of Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. November 2001; 164:1885-9.
20. Iannuzzi MC, Rybicki BA. Genetics of Sarcoidosis: Candidate Genes and Genome Scans. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:108-16.
21. Ianuzzi MC. Advances in the Genetics of Sarcoidosis. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:457-60.
22. Grunewalk J, Eklund A. Role of CD4+ T Cells in Sarcoidosis. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 2007; 4:461-4.
23. Doty JD, Mazur J, Judson M. Treatment of Sarcoidosis with Infliximab. CHEST. 2005; 127:1064-71.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

I. Infants were monitored and arousals during the night were defined as either incomplete waking or complete waking.

1. Mayo Clinic. Baby’s Health. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): Risk Factors. June 13, 2007. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sudden-infant-death-syndrome/DS00145/DSECTION=3. Accessed on January 15, 2008.
2. Ineko K, Patricia F, Groswasser J, Scaillet S, et al. Incomplete Arousal Processes in Infants Who Were Victims of Sudden Death. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. December 2003; 168:1298-1303.
3. Moon R, Fu L. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Pediatrics in Review. 2007; 28:209-14.
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. SIDS: “Back to Sleep” Campaign. August 23, 2006. Available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/sids/sids.cfm. Accessed on January 18, 2008.
5. Shah T, Sullivan K, Carter J. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Reported Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy. American Journal of Public Health. October 2006; 96:1757-9.
6. State of California Air Resources Board. Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant: Executive Summary, Appendix III. June 2005.
7. Mayo Clinic. Baby’s Health. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): Risk Factors. June 13, 2007. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sudden-infant-death-syndrome/DS00145/DSECTION=3. Accessed on January 15, 2008.
8. Sahni R, Fifer WP, Myers MM. Identifying Infants at Risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2007; 19(2):145-9.
9. Moon R, Fu L. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Pediatrics in Review. 2007; 28:209-14.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports. Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2004 Period Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set. May 2, 2007; 55(14).
11. Ibid.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports. Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005. September 2007.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports. Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2004 Period Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set. May 2, 2007; 55(14).
14. Unpublished data from National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 2007.
15. Paterson D, et al. Multiple Serotonergic Brainstem Abnormalities in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2006; 296(17).
16. Smith, et al. Second Trimester Maternal Serum Levels of Alpha-Fetoprotein and the Subsequent Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004; 351:978-86.

Tobacco Use

I. Current smokers were defined as persons having ever smoked 100 cigarettes and who currently smoke every day or some days.

II. Information on smoking during pregnancy was reported according to two different and noncomparable questions in 2005: the 1989 U.S. Standard Certificate of Live Birth (unrevised; 36 states, New York City and District of Columbia), a simple “yes/no” question, and the 2003 revision (11 states), which asks about smoking during each trimester of pregnancy. Data in this section are based on the 1989 version of the U.S. Standard Certificate of Live Birth, unless otherwise noted.

III. The estimated percent of daily smokers who had quit for one or more days in the U.S. was determined by taking the median value from the reported percentages of each state or territory.

IV. Pack-years is the number of packs of cigarettes smoked per day multiplied by the number of years a person smoked at that level. This provides a way to measure how much a person has smoked over a long period of time.

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost and Productivity Losses—United States, 1997-2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 1, 2005; 54(25):625-8.
2. World Health Organization. Programmes and Projects. Tobacco Free Initiative. WHO Report on Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008—The MPOWER Package: Tobacco Facts. Available at http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/tobacco_facts/en/index.html. Accessed on March 3, 2008.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost and Productivity Losses—United States, 1997-2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. July 1, 2005; 54(25):625-8.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette Smoking-Attributable Morbidity—United States, 2000. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. September 5, 2003; 52(35): 842-4.
5. National Cancer Institute. Fact Sheet. Cigarette Smoking and Cancer: Questions and Answers. November 2004. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/cancer. Accessed on January 28, 2008.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2004.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Cigarette Smoking, Asbestos Exposure and Your Health. June 2006. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/asbestos/site-kit/docs/CigarettesAsbestos2.pdf. Accessed on January 28, 2008.
8. Bjartveit K, Tverdal A. Health Consequences of Smoking 1-4 Cigarettes Per Day. Tobacco Control. 2005; 14:315-20.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette Smoking Among Adults—United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. November 9, 2007; 56(44):1157-61.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 1965-2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
11. Ibid.
12. Mowery PD, Brick PD, Farrelly MC. Legacy First Look Report 3. Pathways to Established Smoking: Results from the 1999 National Youth Tobacco Survey. Washington DC: American Legacy Foundation. October 2000.
13. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2007). Results from the 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (Office of Applied Studies. NSDUH Series H-32, DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4293). Available at http://oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh/2k6nsduh/2k6results.pdf. Accessed on March 17, 2008.
14. World Health Organization. Programmes and Projects. Tobacco Free Initiative. WHO Report on Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008—The MPOWER Package: Tobacco Facts. Available at http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/tobacco_facts/en/index.html.  Accessed on March 3, 2008.
15. Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings, 2006. Available at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/overview2006.pdf. Accessed on December 13, 2007.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use, Access and Exposure to Tobacco in Media Among Middle and High School Students—United States, 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. April 1, 2005; 54(12):297-301. Corrected data tables.
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 9, 2006; 55(SS05):1-108.
18. Ibid.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use, Access and Exposure to Tobacco in Media Among Middle and High School Students—United States, 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. April 1, 2005; 54(12):297-301. Corrected data tables.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2001.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 9, 2006; 55(SS05):1-108.
22. Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings, 2006. Available at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/overview2006.pdf. Accessed on December 13, 2007.
23. Ibid.
24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. National Youth Tobacco Survey (NYTS). 2006 NYTS Data and Documentation. April 18, 2008. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/surveys/nyts/index.htm#NYTS2006 . Accessed on April 30, 2008.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Tobacco Surveillance—United States, 2001-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. May 19, 2006; 55(SS03):1-56.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 9, 2006; 55(SS05):1-108.
27. Neri M, et al. Children’s Exposure to Environmental Pollutants and Biomarkers of Genetic Damage II. Results of a Comprehensive Literature Search and Meta-Analysis. Mutation Research. 2006; 612:14-39.
28. Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT. Teen Smoking, Field Cancerization and a “Critical Period” Hypothesis for Lung Cancer Susceptibility. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2002; 110:555-8.
29. U.S. Federal Trade Commission. Cigarette Report for 2004 and 2005. April 2007. Available at http://www.ftc.gov/reports/tobacco/2007cigarette2004-2005.pdf. Accessed on February 8, 2008.
30. Connolly GN. Testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. The Need for FDA Regulation of Tobacco Products, February 27, 2007.
31. Wellman RJ, Sugarman DB, DiFranza JR, Winickoff JP. The Extent to Which Tobacco Marketing and Tobacco Use in Films Contribute to Children’s Use of Tobacco: A Meta-Analysis. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. December 2006; 160(12):1202.
32. Sargent JD, et al. Exposure to Movie Smoking: Its Relations to Smoking Initiation Among U.S. Adolescents. Pediatrics. November 5, 2005; 116(5):1183-91.
33. Worth KA, Cin SD, Sargent JD. Prevalence of Smoking Among Major Movie Characters: 1996-2004. Tobacco Control. 2006; 15:442-6.
34. Sargent JD, Tanski SE, Gibson J. Exposure to Movie Smoking Among U.S. Adolescents Aged 10 to 14 Years: A Population Estimate. Pediatrics. May 5, 2007; 119(5):e1167.
35. Gutschoven K, Van den Bulck J. Television Viewing and Age at Smoking Initiation: Does a Relationship Exist Between Higher Levels of Television Viewing and Earlier Onset of Smoking? Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 2005; 7:381-5.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost and Economic Costs—United States, 1995-1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. April 12, 2002; 51(14):300-3.
38. Ott A, et al. Effect of Smoking on Global Cognitive Function in Nondemented Elderly. Neurology. March 23, 2004; 62:920-4.
39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2004.
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation: A Report of the Surgeon General, 1990.
41. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2004.
42. Department of Health and Human Services. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Healthy People 2010. Progress Review: Respiratory Health. June 29, 2004. Available at http://www.healthypeople.gov/Data/2010prog/focus24/default.htm.  Accessed on February 29, 2008.
43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
44. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007. Available at http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf. Accessed on June 5, 2007.
45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2004.
46. Ibid.
47. Neri M, et al. Children’s Exposure to Environmental Pollutants and Biomarkers of Genetic Damage II. Results of a Comprehensive Literature Search and Meta-Analysis. Mutation Research. 2006; 612:14-39.
48. Jaakkola JK, Gissler M. Are Girls More Susceptible to the Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Tobacco Smoke on Asthma? Epidemiology. 2007; 18:573-6.
49. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics Reports. Births: Final Data for 2005. December 5, 2007; 56(5).
50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State Estimates of Neonatal Health-Care Costs Associated with Maternal Smoking—United States, 1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. October 8, 2004; 53(39):912-5.
51. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2001.
52. Marlantes L, Giusto T. Critics Say Cigarette Aimed at Young Girls. ABC News. June 10, 2007. Available at http://abcnews.go.com/WN/Health/story?id=3262480&page=1. Accessed on March 25, 2008.
53. Connolly GN. Testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. The Need for FDA Regulation of Tobacco Products, February 27, 2007.
54. Ibid.
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
56. Austin SB, Ziyadeh N, Fisher LB, Kahn JA, Colditz GA, Frazier AL. Sexual Orientation and Tobacco Use in a Cohort Study of U.S. Adolescent Girls and Boys. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. April 2004; 158:309-10.
57. Gruskin EP, Greenwood GL, Matevia M, Pollack LM, Bye LL. Disparities in Smoking Between the Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Population and the General Population in California. American Journal of Public Health. August 2007; 97:1496-502.
58. California Environmental Protection Agency. Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Executive Summary. June 2005.
59. Rosenlund M, Berglind N, Gustavsson A, et al. Environmental Smoke and Myocardial Infarction Among Never-Smokers in the Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program (SHEEP). Epidemiology. 2001; 12:558-64.60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2006.
60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General, 2006.
61. Ibid.
62. Polanska K, et al. Environmental Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Children’s Health. Acta Paediatrica. 2006; 95(Suppl 453):86-92.
63. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The National Survey on Environmental Management of Asthma and Children’s Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke Fact Sheet. 2004. Available at http://www.epa.gov/smokefree/pdfs/survey_fact_sheet.pdf. Accessed on October 2, 2007.
64. Matt GE, et al. Households Contaminated by Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Sources of Infant Exposure. Tobacco Control. March 2004; 13:29-37.
65. California Environmental Protection Agency. Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Executive Summary. June 2005.
66. California Environmental Protection Agency. Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke. June 2005.
67. Gilliland FD, Berhane K, Islam T, et al. Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Absenteeism Related to Respiratory Illness in School Children. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2003; 157:861-9.
68. Behand DF, Eriksen MP, Lin Y. Economic Effects of Environmental Tobacco Smoke. Society of Actuaries. March 31, 2005. Available at http://www.soa.org/files/pdf/ETSReportFinalDraft(Final%203).pdf. Accessed on February 29, 2008.
69. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Smoking and Tobacco Use Fact Sheet: Cigars. Updated March 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/cigars.htm. Accessed on October 5, 2007.
70. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Smoking & Tobacco Use Fact Sheet: Bidis and Kreteks. February 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/bidis_kreteks.htm#. Accessed on February 5, 2008.
71. American Lung Association. Tobacco Policy Trend Alert. An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use. February 2007. Available at http://slati.lungusa.org/alerts/Trend%20Alert_Waterpipes.pdf. Accessed on February 5, 2008.
72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Smoking & Tobacco Use Fact Sheet: Bidis and Kreteks. February 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/bidis_kreteks.htm#. Accessed on February 5, 2008.
73. American Lung Association. Tobacco Policy Trend Alert. An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use. February 2007. Available at http://slati.lungusa.org/alerts/Trend%20Alert_Waterpipes.pdf. Accessed on February 5, 2008.
74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Smoking and Tobacco Use Fact Sheet: Smokeless Tobacco. April 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/smokeless_tobacco.htm. Accessed on February 5, 2008.
75. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation: A Report of the Surgeon General, 1990.
76. Ibid.
77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Analysis by the American Lung Association, Research and Program Services Division using SPSS and SUDAAN software.
78. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State-Specific Prevalence of Cigarette Smoking Among Adults and Quitting Among Persons Aged 18-35—United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. September 28, 2007; 56(38):993-6.
79. Taylor DH, Hasselblad V, Henley J, Thun MJ, Sloan FA. Benefits of Smoking Cessation for Longevity. American Journal of Public Health. 2002; 92:990-6.
80. Godtfredsen NS, Holst C, Prescott E, Vestbo J, Olser M. Smoking Reduction, Smoking Cessation and Mortality: A 16-year Follow-up of 19,732 Men and Women from the Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2002; 156:994-1001.
81. Connett JE, Murray RP, Buist AS, et al. Changes in Smoking Status Affect Women More than Men: Results of the Lung Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2003; 157:973-9.
82. Ibid.
83. Taylor DH, Hasselblad V, Henley J, Thun, MD, Sloan FA. Benefits of Smoking Cessation for Longevity. American Journal of Public Health. 2002; 92:990-6.
84. Kerr S, Watson H, Tolson D, Lough M, Brown M. Developing Evidence-Based Smoking Cessation Training/Education Initiatives in Partnership with Older People and Health Professionals. Caledonian Nursing & Midwifery Research Centre: Glasgow, 2004.
85. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Coverage for Tobacco Use Cessation Treatment: Why, What and How. 2003. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/quit_smoking/cessation/00_pdfs/ReimbursementBrochureFull.pdf. Accessed on March 18, 2008.
86. Fiore MC, Baily WC, Cohen SJ, Dorfman SF, Goldstein MG, Gritz ER, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: Quick Reference Guide for Clinicians. June 2000. Available at http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/tobacco/clinpack.html. Accessed on March 18, 2008.
87. Ibid.
88. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. You Can Quit Smoking. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/Tobacco/quit_smoking/you_can_quit/five_keys.htm. Accessed on October 2, 2007.
89. Wu P, Wilson K, Dimoulas P, Mills EJ. Effectiveness of Smoking Cessation Therapies: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. BioMed Central Public Health. 2006; 6:300.
90. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2000.
91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Office on Smoking and Health. Coverage for Tobacco Use Cessation Treatment: Why, What and How. 2003. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/quit_smoking/cessation/00_pdfs/ReimbursementBrochureFull.pdf. Accessed on March 18, 2008.

Tuberculosis (TB)

1. Hays JN. The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press;1998.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD and TB Prevention. Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. Fact Sheets: Tuberculosis: General Information. July 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/tbfactsheets/tb.htm. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Avert International AIDS Charity. AIDS, HIV and Tuberculosis (TB). August 8, 2007. Available at http://www.avert.org/tuberc.htm. Accessed on October 24, 2007.
6. Ibid.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Progress Toward the Elimination of Tuberculosis -- United States, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. August 27, 1999; 48(33): 732-6. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4833a2.htm. Accessed on February 22, 2008.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2006. October 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/surv/surv2006/default.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with Extensive Resistance to Second-Line Drugs—Worldwide, 2000-2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 24, 2006; 55(11):301-5. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm. Accessed on March 4, 2007.
10. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2007. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2007/pdf/full.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
11. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2008. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2008/pdf/fullreport.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
12. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2006. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2005/pdf/Full.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis Incidence—United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 23, 2007; 56(11):245-50. Available at http:www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5611a2.htm. Accessed on March 3, 2007.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Expanded Tuberculosis Surveillance and Tuberculosis Morbidity—United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. May 27, 1994; 43(20):361-6.
15. Parry C and Davies PD. The Resurgence of Tuberculosis. The Society for Bacteriology Symposium Series, 1996; 25:23S-26S.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis—United States, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 21, 2008; 57(11):281-5.
17. Ibid.
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2006. October 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/surv/surv2006/default.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
19. Ibid.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis—United States, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 21, 2008; 57(11):281-5.
21. Ibid.
22. World Health Organization. Addressing Poverty in TB Control—Options For National TB Programs. Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/WHO_HTM_TB_2005.352.pdf. Accessed on February 11, 2008.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis—United States, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 21, 2008; 57(11):281-5.
24. Ibid.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2006. October 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/surv/surv2006/default.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
26. Ibid.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in Tuberculosis—United States, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 21, 2008; 57(11):281-5.
28. World Health Organization. Tuberculosis, The Worsening Epidemic. Available at http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/Tuberculosis_right7.pdf. Accessed on September 24, 2007.
29. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2008. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2008/pdf/fullreport.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2006. October 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/surv/surv2006/default.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with Extensive Resistance to Second-Line Drugs—Worldwide, 2000-2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 24, 2006; 55(11):301-5. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm. Accessed on March 4, 2007.
32. Brown RE, Miller B, Taylor WR, et al. Health Care Expenditures for Tuberculosis in the U.S. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1995;155:1595-600.
33. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2008. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2008/pdf/fullreport.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD and TB Prevention. Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. Fact Sheets: Tuberculin Skin Testing. May 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/tbfactsheets/skintesting.htm. Accessed on October 3, 2007.
35. Ewer K, Deeks J, Alvarez L, et al. Comparison of T-cell-based Assay with Tuberculin Skin Test for Diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in a School Tuberculosis Outbreak. Lancet. 2003; 361:1168-73.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Using the QuantiFERON-TB Gold Test for Detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection, United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. December 16, 2005; 54(RR15):49-55.
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD and TB Prevention. Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. Fact Sheets: BCG Vaccine. April 2006. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/tbfactsheets/BCG.htm. Accessed on March 14, 2008.
38. Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis. Development of New Vaccines for Tuberculosis Recommendations of the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis (ACET). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. August 21, 1998; 47(RR13):1-6. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/00054407.htm. Accessed on March 14, 2008.
39. American Thoracic Society, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Treatment of Tuberculosis, Official Joint Statement. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. June 20, 2003; 52(RR11):1-77. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5211a1.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
40. American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Adverse Event Data and Revised American Thoracic Society/CDC Recommendations Against the Use of Rifampin and Pyrazinamide for Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection---United States, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. August 8, 2003; 52(31):735-9. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5231a4.htm#tab. Accessed on March 14, 2008.
41. Castro KC. Statement to Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions, October 30, 2007. Available at http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/2007/10/t20071030a.html. Accessed on March 12, 2008.
42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Controlling Tuberculosis in the United States, Recommendations from the American Thoracic Society, CDC, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. November 4, 2005; 54(RR12):1-81. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5412a1.htm. Accessed on October 19, 2007.
43. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2007. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2007/pdf/full.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
44. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Frequently Asked Questions About Tuberculosis. Available at http://www.globalhealthreporting.org/tb.asp. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
45. The National Coalition for Elimination of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis Elimination: The Federal Funding Gap. March 2004. Available at http://www.lungusa.org/atf/cf/{7A8D42C2-FCCA-4604-8ADE-7F5D5E762256}/ncetreport04.pdf. Accessed on October 3, 2007.
46. Schwartzman K, et al. Domestic Returns from the Investment in the Control of Tuberculosis in Other Countries. New England Journal of Medicine. 2005; 353:1008-20.
47. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2008. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2008/pdf/fullreport.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.
48. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2007. Available at http://www.who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2007/pdf/full.pdf. Accessed on March 19, 2008.